Relationship of human figure drawing with executive functioning and achievement

The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between aspects of children’s human figure drawings to their executive functioning and academic achievement. Participants consisted of 80 third and fourth graders, ages 8 to 10 years, along with their parents. Correlational analysis showed no relationship between the developmental scoring of the Goodenough-Harris or Koppitz with measures of executive functioning, as measured by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning (BRIEF; Gioia, Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2000) and the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997). However, Koppitz’s emotional indicators were significantly correlated with all aspects of BRIEF and CAS. The Goodenough-Harris developmental scoring system was significantly correlated with math achievement, whereas Koppitz’s emotional indicators were significantly correlated with mathematics and reading scores. HFD and Executive Functioning 1 Chapter One Overview of the Study Some clinicians have postulated, for over a century now, that human figure tests provide insight into a child’s developmental ability. One such clinician, Florence Goodenough, developed empirical evidence so that human figure drawings could be used to assess a child’s developmental level quantitatively (Abell, Heiberger, & Johnson, 1994; Abell, Von Briesen, & Watz, 1996). Goodenough’s scoring system was based on the belief that the more advanced a child is developmentally, the more realistic the details would be in the drawing (Abell et al., 1994). Due to an increased interest in using human figure drawings as measures of intelligence, many scoring systems were developed. The most widely used approaches were the Goodenough-Harris and Koppitz scoring systems for intellectual development and Koppitz’s scoring system for emotional indicators. Koppitz created a list of emotional indicators for use on human figure drawings in efforts to determine a child’s emotional adjustment (Porteous, 1996). Considering the popularity of using human figure drawing scoring systems, the reliability and validity of the Goodenough-Harris and Koppitz scoring systems were examined. Abell, VonBriesen, and Watz (1996), Abell, Heiberger, and Johnson (1994), and Harris (1963) report a reliability coefficient of .90 or higher for the Goodenough-Harris scoring system for human figure drawings. On the other hand, Abell et al. (1994) and Harris (1968) lacked agreement in their validity findings. For example, Abell et al. (1994) found that the concurrent validity was poor between human figure drawings and the Stanford-Binet intelligence test, while Harris found it to be very good. In addition, Abell et al. (1996) found the concurrent validity coefficients between the scoring of human figure drawings and Wechsler intelligence tests to be poor while Harris found it to be good. Considering that the concurrent validity ranges from poor to high, HFD and Executive Functioning 2 the link of intelligence, achievement and the scores on human figure drawing tests continue to be investigated. Many researchers have conducted studies to further examine the relationship between intelligence and academic achievement tests and the GHDS. For example, Carvajal, McVey, Sellers, Weyland, and McKnab (1987) analyzed the relationship between the scores of the Stanford-Binet IV, Peabody Individual Achievement Test – Reviewed, and Columbia Mental Maturity Scale, with the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test. Abell et al. (1994) evaluated the cognitive scoring systems of the Bucks (1948) House-Tree-Person and the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (1963). Research continued with Aikman, Belter, and Finch (1992) when they examined the validity in assessing intellectual level and academic achievement through human figure drawings. Aikman et al. (1992) and Scott (1981) reported a consistent 10-point difference between intelligence quotient scores and the intelligence scores on the Goodenough-Harris scoring system for human figure drawings. Overall, the above research suggests that a relationship between intelligence and achievement test scores and human figure drawings shows considerable variability. More recently, researchers have investigated the relationship between executive functioning and intelligence. Executive functioning, which is made up of components such as memory, learning, planning, organization, abstract thinking, and response inhibition, have been researched in the past (Duff, Schoenberg, Scott, & Adams, 2005). Some research has shown that intellectual functioning is conceptually different than executive functioning. For example, Lezac (1995) found that if executive functions become impaired, a person might still maintain a high cognitive profile. Anderson, Bechera, Damasio, Tranel, and Damasio (1999) and Amador (2002) examined the difference between intelligence HFD and Executive Functioning 3 and executive functioning by comparing the measured cognitive abilities of IQ and executive processing skills. The overall conclusions from this study indicated that executive functioning measures differentiate the skills of a mentally impaired student from that of an intellectually normal student better than measures of intelligence. However, there are instances in which intellectual and executive functioning are related. For example, Kizilbash (1999) explored the relationship between executive functioning and IQ scores of preschool children with and without disruptive behavior problems. Kizilbash found that children with aggressive and disruptive behavior consistently demonstrated patterns of neuropsychological deficits; and showed a relationship between verbal and attentional functioning. Furthermore, Woods (2000) and Rosenthal, Riccio, Gsanger, and Jarratt (2006) found that there was a strong relationship between executive functioning and intellectual functioning. The use of executive functioning instruments is now being included in many comprehensive psychoeducational batteries to assess children suspected of having disabilities. Many researchers have explored whether executive functioning can differentiate neuropsychological disorders that are commonly seen in schools, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Conduct Disorder, and Oppositional Defiant Disorder. In Woods' (2000) study, the results indicated that ADHD subjects demonstrated impairment on executive measures, which suggests that students with ADHD would show impairment in many school tasks. Some of the aspects of executive functioning are involved with the scoring systems of the Goodenough-Harris and Koppitz. When drawing a human figure, a child must remember what aspects belong in a picture of a person, like the eyes, nose, and ears. Additionally, the child needs to plan out where each part of the drawing (eyes, ears, hands, etc) will go and how it will HFD and Executive Functioning 4 fit on the paper. Though memory and planning are clearly important aspects in this assessment, there has not been much research in this area. This leads the author to the question of whether or not there’s a connection between the DAP and executive functioning and academic achievement? If so, can the DAP be used as a quick measure of executive functioning for school aged children? Definitions of Terms Human Figure Drawing: a task that requires a child to draw a whole person on a piece of paper Executive Functioning: a person’s level of higher order thinking, which is made up by many components that include memory, learning, planning, organization, abstract thinking, and response inhibition Goodenough-Harris Scoring System: a scoring system, developed originally by Florence Goodenough in 1926, that is utilized with the human figure drawing to determine a child’s developmental score Koppitz Emotional Indicators: a scoring system that is utilized with the human figure drawing to determine a child’s emotional adjustment Koppitz Scoring System: a scoring system that is utilized on the human figure drawing to assess a child’s developmental score via the number of expected (items expected to be present at the child’s age) and exceptional (an item not expected at the child’s age) items present in the drawing HFD and Executive Functioning 5 Delimitations The focus of this study was specifically looking at the relationship between particular measures of executive functioning and the Goodenough-Harris and Koppitz scoring systems within a general population of 3 and 4 grade children. HFD and Executive Functioning 6 Chapter Two Literature Review Much research has investigated whether the Goodenough-Harris and Koppitz Human Figure Drawing (HFD) scoring systems are comparable to other measures of intelligence and achievement. Past research has investigated the concept of executive functioning and defined it as higher order thinking ability. Comparisons of executive functioning measures to those of intelligence and academic achievement have also been researched. Presently in school systems, psychoeducational assessments are beginning to focus on aspects of executive functioning. A child’s executive functioning skills are assessed and utilized to ascertain a child’s strengths and weaknesses. In efforts to determine if measures such as the Goodenough-Harris and Koppitz scoring systems can be useful tools to ascertain executive functioning ability, the following areas are reviewed: (a) human figure drawing, (b) executive functioning, (c) connections between intelligence and achievement to human figure drawing, (d) connections between intelligence and executive functioning, and (e) executive functioning and achievement. Human Figure Drawing For more than 100 years, clinicians and psychologists have studied children’s drawing as a measure of one’s cognitive ability. In 1926, Florence Goodenough developed a drawing test called the Draw-A-Man test for use with children from 4 to 10 years of age. The Draw-A-Man test consists of having a child draw a whole person on a piece of paper that is scored via a list of items that are commonly present in drawings. Additionally, Goodenough provided empirical evidence that showed a child’s drawing is a reflection of one’s intellectual skills and development (Abell, Heiberger, & Johnson, 1994; Abell, Von Briesen, & Watz, 1996). It is believed that the more developed the child is intellectually, the more realistic the details that are HFD and Executive Functioning 7 incorporated into the drawings (Abell et al., 1994). Therefore, the clinician may view the picture and score the drawing with a developmental intelligence checklist. The more items checked on the list, the higher the level of developmental intelligence. Goodenough’s Draw-A-Man test underwent changes over the years. In 1949 Machover modified the Goodenough’s Draw-A-Man scoring procedure and renamed it the Draw-A-Person test (Abell et al., 1994; Abell et al., 1996). Adopting the name Draw-A-Person (DAP), Goodenough and Harris revamped and renormed Goodenough’s original scoring criteria to a list comprised of 71 items for females and 73 items for males (Harris, 1968). Continuing to undergo changes, the Goodenough-Harris developmental scoring (GHDS) system was reworked in 1968 by Elizabeth Koppitz, who utilized the Goodenough-Harris test as a template to develop a briefer scoring system called the Koppitz Developmental Inventory (KDI). The KDI eliminates the finer details from Goodenough-Harris’ scoring list. According to Koppitz (1968), finer details are rarely seen at younger ages and therefore not needed to create an effective and efficient scoring system. More recently, Abell et al. (1996) found inconclusive results of the comparability of the KDI and GHDS systems. In addition to the KDI, Koppitz developed a list of emotional indicators to be utilized on the DAP test. Koppitz theorized that the presence of certain characteristics in a human figure drawing indicated a child’s emotional adjustment. Based on the number of emotional indicators present on a child’s HFD, Glutting and Nestor (1986) were able to differentiate three categories of emotional adjustment: (a) well adjusted, (b) adequately adjusted, and (c) possibly maladjusted. These findings supported the use of emotional indicators on the DAP as an estimate of learningrelated behavior. Moreover, Yama's (1990) study supported the notion that the use of emotional indicators on the DAP could be useful in schools. Overall, Yama found that emotional indicators HFD and Executive Functioning 8 were useful when used in context with artistic ability and bizarreness to determine a person’s overall psychological and emotional adjustment. Executive Functioning Neuropsychology is the study of the relationship between the brain and behavior (Goldstein and Reynolds, 1999). In this discipline, it is believed that executive functioning controls and coordinates cognitive operations. Behavioral functions and executive processes are controlled by certain parts of the brain. Executive processes are also denoted as executive functions and are typically defined as higher order thinking, which is made up by many components, -e.g. memory, learning, planning, organization, abstract thinking, and response inhibition. According to Dawson and Guare (2004), executive skills allow children in grades three through five to perform the following tasks: (a) bring papers, books, and assignments to and from school, (b) complete about an hour of homework, (c) keep track of a changing schedule, (d) save money for desired objects and plan to earn money, (e) run errands that may involve a time delay, (f) keep track of belongings, (g) plan simple school projects (e.g. a book report), and (h) inhibit and self-regulate behaviors (e.g. behave when the teacher leaves the room). Brain damage effects on executive functioning. Researchers indicate that frontal lobe damage sustained in adulthood tends to spare intelligence, as determined by psychometric batteries (Warrington, James, & Maciejewski, 1986). An often cited example of a person who lived with damage in the executive structures of the brain was the person known as Phineas Gage. In 1848, Gage was involved in a railroad construction accident that sent an iron bar through his cheek, skull, and brain (see Appendix 1). Immediately after the accident, Gage quickly regained consciousness and was able to adequately communicate with those around him. HFD and Executive Functioning 9 In the months to follow, certain changes were noted about Gage. Those who knew Gage before the accident described him as “responsible, intelligent, and socially well-adapted” (Damasio & Damasio, 1994, page 1102). After the accident, Gage experienced no impairments in movement, speech, memory, or intelligence and continued to appear able-bodied and learn new things (Damasio & Damasio). However, areas that are now considered to be executive functions appeared to be hampered in Gage. More specifically, he often became disrespectful and impulsive, used more profanity, and had a dramatically lowered sense of responsibility (e.g. trouble honoring commitments) (Damasio & Damasio; Wagar & Thagard, 2004). John Harlow, Gage’s doctor, theorized that Gage’s cognitive and behavioral changes were a result of damage to the frontal lobe, which moderates “intellectual faculty from animal propensities” (Damasio & Damasio, page 1103). Damasio and Damasio (1994) utilized brain-imaging techniques to take a closer look at the projected areas affected by the iron rod penetrating the brain. These researchers theorized that Gage “exemplified a particular type of cognitive and behavioral defect caused by damage to ventral and medial sectors of the prefrontal cortex,” which is the most anterior area of the frontal lobe (Damasio & Damasio, page 1103). The most statistically and medically probable trajectory of the iron rod was logically ascertained, which indicated that the rod did damage to the theorized areas of the brain suspected by Damasio and Damasio. This information was consistent with 12 other patients with frontal lobe damage as examined by Damasio and Damasio. These researchers stated the following: “[The patients] ability to make rationale decisions in personal and social matters is invariably compromised and so is their processing of emotion. On the contrary, their ability to tackle the logic of an abstract problem, to perform calculations, and to call up HFD and Executive Functioning 10 appropriate knowledge and attend to it remains intact... The assignment of frontal regions to different cognitive domains is compatible with the idea that frontal neurons in any of those areas may be involved with attention, working memory, and the categorization of contingent relationships regardless of the domain. This assignment also agrees with the idea that in non-brain-damaged individuals, the separate frontal regions are interconnected and act cooperatively to support reasoning and decision making.” (page 1104). Overall, this research by Damasio and Damasio was termed the Somatic-Marker Hypothesis. In the end, the brain damage sustained by Gage and the research that followed illustrated that various brain structures work together to perform tasks. In Gage’s case, higher order thinking skills, such as planning, organization, response inhibition, and behavioral control, were hampered by his frontal lobe damage. Building from Damasio and Damasio's (1994) Somatic-Marker Hypothesis, Wagar and Thagard (2004) forwarded a neurological theory that involves cognitive and emotional information in effective decision-making ability. In this theory, the frontal lobe that is severely damaged is a part of the relay system with others areas of the brain, such as the amygdala and hippocampus, that are involved with regulating emotions. Executive functioning assessment. Dawson and Guare (2004) acknowledge that the development of executive skills in the brain of a child and adolescent parallels the ability to act, think, and feel. The region of the brain that controls the executive components is on the left and right hemispheres in the frontal/prefrontal cortex. Dawson and Guare agreed with previous researchers who held that the neurological base for executive skills is the frontal cortex. Furthermore, Dawson and Guare believe that accurate assessment of executive skills is critical in HFD and Executive Functioning 11 identifying the child’s overall strengths and weaknesses and to create effective interventions. Neuropsychological assessment taps into specific domains of mental-behavioral functioning (Goldstein & Reynolds, 1999). As such, the relationship between the brain and behavior are assessed and a plan of action can be created for those who need interventions. Executive functioning development. Welsh, Pennington, and Groisser (1991) investigated the prefrontal development of executive functions in children. Their research determined that there were at least three stages of skill development. At age 6 years, the level of development results in organized and planned behavior (Passler, Isaac, & Hynd, 1985; Welsh et al.). By age 10 years, Welsh et al. determined that tasks that require “greater hypothesis testing and impulse control” developed (p142). Due to certain skills (verbal fluency, motor sequencing, and complex planning) not yet reaching the adult ability level at age 12, researchers determined that there must be another period of development during adolescence (Welsh et al.). Executive functioning components in human figure drawing. In the past, the relationship between details included in a human figure drawing and memory was investigated in adults. Ericsson, Winblad, and Nilsson (2001) illustrated that the presence, or absence, of essential details in HFD could support a clinical evaluation of cognitive and memory decline. Overall, these researchers found a reduction in the number of details in HFD with the progression of dementia (episodic memory). Further, the decrease in details present in HFD was found by Lakin (1956) to be associated with lower memory and cognitive functioning. Human Figure Drawings Connections with IQ and Achievement The GHDS test manual states that the drawing test does not give an identical intelligence score as that from an individually administered IQ test (Harris, 1968). Rather, the DAP should be used as a screening tool to select students that need additional testing (Harris, 1963). HFD and Executive Functioning 12 However, clinicians and researchers questioned its utility and ability to ascertain accurate IQ scores. As such, there have been many studies conducted to establish a definitive relationship between the GHDS and ones intellectual abilities and achievement. Researchers have investigated whether the GHDS accurately assesses ability across the ages (i.e. from age 4 to 10). Strommen's (1987) research provided information about drawing development on the GHDS to further assess developmental intelligence. In general, he found that the human figure test was psychometrically sound and that human figure drawings showed developmental changes with age. Some of the studies reviewed focused on the reliability and validity of the GHDS to intellectual and academic testing (e.g. Abell et al., 1994; Abell et al., 1996; Harris, 1963). Researchers attempted to increase validity of human figure drawing scoring by averaging the scores of two HFD to find an overall scoring quotient (Abell et al., 1994). These researchers believed that two HFD would yield more accurate results than just one HFD. Their results, however, did not support their hypothesis. The results did not show higher validity coefficients for either development or intelligence. On the other hand, Kastner, May, and Hildman (2001) were consistent with Wechsler (1991) and Lavin (1996), when their research on a predictive validity battery concluded that language based tests had a higher association with later academic success than tests with motor components, such as the DAP. In addition, Kastner et al. found that those with auditory-verbal learning disabilities had lower academic achievement scores. Past research found connections between intelligence scores and DAP standard scores. Abell et al. (1994) found Pearson Product Moment Correlations of the Goodenough-Harris DAP standard scores with WAIS-R test results to have a modest relationship. Furthermore, Abell et al. (1994) were able to determine that using Buck’s system on one human figure can effectively HFD and Executive Functioning 13 and efficiently determine one’s intelligence score. In a subsequent study, Abell et al. (1996) compared the DAP scores and again found a correlation between human figure drawing scores and intelligence scores. Abell et al. (1996) found that the Goodenough-Harris DAP standard scores are correlated more than Koppitz’s scores with the WISC-III and Stanford Binet intelligence score. A result of this research indicates that one should come up with a similar estimate of cognitive status with an intelligence test as with a small sample of drawing ability. Connections between human figure scores and full-scale intelligence scores also occurred in another perspective. Tramill, Edwards, and Tramill (1980) assessed the relationship between the WISC-R and Draw-A-Person on children with academic difficulties. The results of their Pearson Product Moment Coefficient correlations indicated a gender difference on the draw-aperson intelligence quotient and intelligence testing. Overall, females’ with academic difficulties had standard scores on the DAP that approximated WISC-R scores than did males’ with academic difficulty. The best intelligence subtest predictor of DAP intelligence for females was Arithmetic, whereas for males, it was Similarities. Though the above studies support the connection between the draw-a-person and intellectual abilities and achievement, there are also discrepancies between these studies that can be divided into three areas. The first area of study examines whether the DAP underestimates intelligence. Another area of study investigates whether the DAP is a better estimate of lower intelligence than of average or high intelligence. The third area of study suggests that there is no significant correlation between DAP and intelligence and achievement scores. The first area of study examined whether DAP standard scores underestimates a person’s true intelligence. Although Abell et al. (1994), mentioned earlier, found a correlation between intelligence scores on the WAIS-R and the DAP scores, their t-tests on correlated observations HFD and Executive Functioning 14 for performance scale and full scale score indicated that the Goodenough-Harris underestimates full scale intelligence scores (FSIQ) by 16 points on a consistent basis. However, the Goodenough-Harris system was used with young adults rather than young children. On the other hand, Buck’s system, which was created for young adults, gave a closer approximation to the WAIS-R performance scale and full scale. Yet, it too underestimated FSIQ by 10 points. Furthermore, the studies performed by Aikman, Belter, and Finch (1992) and Scott (1981) also showed a 10 point difference between standard scores on the DAP and the WISC-R and WAISR. The second area of study investigated whether human figure drawing tests give a better estimate of lower intelligence than that of average or high intelligence. The results from Aikman et al.'s (1992) study that gauged the validity of the Goodenough-Harris Draw-A-Person in the assessment of intelligence and academic achievement are of interest. The Pearson Product Moment Correlations among the achievement scores, full scale IQ’s, and drawing standard scores for male and female participants were found to have a statistically significant relationship. However, the best rate of accurate diagnosis was between achievement scores, full scale IQ’s, and DAP standard scores in the lower intelligence range. Though their results were inconclusive, Abell et al. (1996) attempted to find support for the hypothesis that those with lower IQ scores or that those who are younger in years would be better suited for the use of human figure drawing systems. Lastly, Carvajal, McVey, Sellers, Weyland, and McKnab (1987) show that there is no significant correlation between intelligence scores on the Stanford Binet-IV (SB-IV) and DAP Additionally, Aikman et al. (1992) also failed to show a correlation throughout the intelligence spectrum. Thus, they failed to support the belief that IQ tests and the DAP can be interchanged HFD and Executive Functioning 15 as a measure of intelligence. Both studies indicated that the DAP should not be substituted for an IQ test or achievement test, since the DAP appears to tap different abilities. Connections between IQ and Executive Functioning Intellectual functioning and executive functioning are conceptually different from each other. Lezac (1995) stated that if executive functions become impaired, a person might still maintain a high cognitive profile. Anderson, Bechera, Damasio, Tranel, and Damasio (1999) researched the difference between intelligence and executive functioning by comparing the measured cognitive abilities IQ to executive processing skills measured by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) of patients with prefrontal cortex injuries. The tests illustrated normal intelligence along side low levels of executive functioning skills. Another researcher that supported these results was Amador (2002), who investigated the executive functioning abilities of mentally impaired high school students. The overall conclusions from this study indicated that executive functioning assessments could differentiate the skills of a mentally impaired student from those of an intellectually normal student better than an IQ assessment. However, research has also explored how executive functioning and intelligence are linked to one another. Kizilbash (1999) explored the relationship between executive functioning and IQ scores of preschool children with and without disruptive behavior problems. Overall, Kizilbash's (1999) research indicated that executive functioning and IQ scores were related to each other. Furthermore, Woods (2000) and Rosenthal, Riccio, Gsanger, and Jarratt (2006) found that there was a strong relationship between executive and intellectual functioning. Additionally, Rosenthal et al. found that the FSIQ was a predictor of results on parent ratings of attention and executive functioning. Executive Functioning and Achievement HFD and Executive Functioning 16 Overall, deficits in executive functioning can affect many aspects of student behavior and achievement. Intelligence and executive functioning are related factors that should be considered together when a child is suspected of having deficits in executive skills. In school, executive functioning skills range from reading ability, learning, and memory. Additionally, executive functioning has been related to other neuropsychological disorders that may affect a student in the classroom. Gathercole and Pickering (2000) and McLean and Hitch (1999) found that executive functioning is a good predictor for performance in school. In schools, executive functioning skills are associated with mathematics, reading, writing, learning, memory, and planning. A relationship has been found between executive functioning skills (e.g. flexibility, planning, and inhibition) and certain neuropsychological disorders. Executive functioning can differentiate neuropsychological disorders, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Conduct Disorder (CD), and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Children with these disorders show poor performance in school. Goldstein and Reynolds (1999) stated that a child’s educational cognitive skills or higher order information processing skills can be assessed through a neuropsychological evaluation, which may include traditional intelligence testing, tests of memory and learning, measures of verbal and nonverbal memory processes, measures of receptive and expressive vocabulary, assessment for specific deficits, and assessments of acuteness and chronicity. Bull and Scerif (2001) examined how executive functioning skills are involved in the development of math skills. The researchers also wanted to determine if executive functioning were distinct sets of skills and if these skills extend into childhood. Using correlational analysis, Bull, Johnston, and Roy (1999) and Bull and Scerif showed that those with lower mathematical HFD and Executive Functioning 17 abilities exhibited poor inhibition. Bull and Scerif speculated that lower mathematical abilities could be due to having difficulty maintaining information in working memory. Bull et al. and Rourke (1993) also found that children who had lower mathematical ability had more difficulty shifting between tasks, which resulted in more perseverative mathematical responses. Researchers in the past have noted that executive dysfunction may be the cause of poor reading ability. Swanson (1991) defined a reading disability as a discrepancy between a person’s intellectual capacity and academic achievement. Condor, Anderson, and Saling (1995) stated that impairment in cognitive processes, neurological inefficiency, emotional disturbance, or environmental factors can all play a part in the discrepancy between intellectual capacity and academic achievement. These researchers also stated that in a young and developing population there is an interaction between executive functioning and intelligence. Moreover, weakened executive functioning could be the cause of poor reading skills, reading disabilities and poor writing ability and text comprehension (Cornoldi, 1990; Levin, 1990). However, the Condor et al. study found that children with reading disabilities can still utilize planned and strategic methods just as well as those without reading disabilities. Although younger children with a reading disability tend to take longer than those without a reading disability. Additionally, Condor et al. (1995) found that children with higher levels of strategy usage also have a higher level of intellectual functioning. Research indicates that neuropsychological functions influence a persons writing abilities (Berninger, 1999; Hooper, Swartz, Wakely, de Kruif, & Montgomery, 2002; Lea & Levy, 1999; Levine et al., 1993). Working memory, attention, higher order cognition, and visual spatial abilities are some of the executive functioning skills that have been reviewed in terms of its affects on writing (Hooper et al.). Kellogg (1999) found that working memory is an important HFD and Executive Functioning 18 executive function in the act of writing because it involves self-monitoring, holding and maintaining ideas, and utilizing grammar. Hooper et al. suggested that certain executive functioning skills (initiating and shifting) separated good writers from poor writers. More specifically, their results showed that verbal organization and working memory are apart of the writing process. Learning and planning. Learning and planning executive functioning skills were researched by Benton (2001), who studied the performance of children with academic learning disorders in various areas of executive functioning (e.g., planning, problem solving, mental flexibility). Three different results were obtained through this study. The first was that a different pattern of executive dysfunction emerged for math disability than for a reading disability or combination disabilities. Another was that reading and a combination of disabilities have similar patterns. Lastly, Benton's (2001) results suggested that treatment considerations should be sensitive to the differences of executive functioning. Memory and planning. Goldstein and Reynolds (1999) connect attention with memory. They believe that attention is needed for a line of thought to become a memory. Memory and learning executive functioning skills were the focus in a study by Duff, Schoenberg, Scott, and Adams (2005). They researched the association between executive functioning and the standard measures of verbal and visual learning and memory. Generally, the authors thought that general intelligence was related to memory and executive functions and their results supported a strong relationship between executive functioning and memory. The association between executive dysfunction and visual memory impairment was supported in this study and was as strong as the verbal memory and executive function relationship. It has been indicated through this study that verbal and visual memory measures were related to executive function. The authors believed HFD and Executive Functioning 19 that overlap of memory and executive measures could be due to a superior cognitive function. Neuropsychological Disorders. Many researchers have explored whether executive functioning can differentiate neuropsychological disorders, such as ADHD, CD, and ODD. Goldstein and Reynolds (1999) connect attention with memory in that they believe that attention is needed for a line of thought to become a memory. However, the results from the Woods (2000) study indicated that ADHD subjects demonstrated impairment on executive measures, which would mean that students with ADHD showed impairment in many school tasks. In addition, Piek et al. (2004) explored the relationship between motor coordination, executive functioning and attention in school-aged children. An association was found between executive functioning and hyperactive and impulsive symptoms. In another study, Viechnicki (2004) supported the connection between ADHD and executive functioning. Viechnicki (2004) studied the BRIEF results of teachers to utilize a more developmentally appropriate measure of executive function in efforts to determine if an ADHD child has an executive dysfunction. In general, this study provided proof that executive functioning deficits do exist in children with ADHD and can be used to develop treatments and/or interventions. In yet another study, MuirBroaddus, Rosenstein, Medina, and Soderfberg (2002) show that a connection between ADHD and executive functioning exists. Muir-Broaddus et al. (2002) study suggests that children with ADHD have weaknesses on tests that are sensitive to frontal executive functioning. Child populations of ADHD have established and replicated weaknesses in executive functioning. Lovejoy et al. (1999), Murphy, Barkley, and Buch (2001), and Nigg et al. (2005) confirmed executive functioning weaknesses in ADHD adults as well. These results enforce the belief that ADHD shares certain neurocognitive features with the syndrome in childhood and that executive functioning skills are weakened in those with ADHD. HFD and Executive Functioning 20 Conclusions Though the human figure drawing technique has been in use for over 100 years, there are discrepancies in the research on how effective it is in determining intelligence. There still are thoughts that the DAP may have outlived its purpose if it cannot be used as a quick measure of intelligence and developmental level. The articles generally suggest that the Goodenough-Harris draw-a-person test should not supplant intelligence tests. Generally speaking, there is a difference between intelligence and executive functioning. However, intelligence is linked to executive functioning, which is quickly becoming a widely used area in schools to assess and help children with neuropsychological issues and learning disorders. Neuropsychological testing allows one to accurately assess executive skills, which is critical in identifying the child’s strengths and weaknesses. Moreover, executive functioning is a better indicator of a child’s ability than an intelligence test and provides more information for developing effective and efficient interventions. Achievement and behavior are affected when a child has deficits in executive functioning. In general, when a child is suspected of having deficits in executive skills, the child’s levels of intelligence and executive functioning skills should be considered together. Executive functioning skills range from reading ability, learning, and memory. All of these skills can be affected if there are deficits in executive functioning. Lastly, neuropsychological disorders that affect a student in the classroom have been linked to executive functioning skills. Executive functioning is made up of many aspects, including memory, planning, and learning. Memory is one aspect of the Goodenough-Harris human figure drawing test, due to the fact that the child has to bring a portion of his or her memory into the drawing. For example, the child must remember what aspects belong in a picture of a person, like the eyes, nose, and ears. HFD and Executive Functioning 21 Planning is also essential in the DAP assessment, since the child needs to plan out where each part of the drawing will go and fit on the paper. Although aspects of executive functioning seem related to the DAP, there has not been much research in this area, and therefore leads to the question: Is there is a connection between the DAP and executive functioning? A further question: Is the DAP related to academic achievement? As such, can it be used as a quick measure of IQ and executive functioning for the younger years? The purpose of these study is to answer these three questions. HFD and Executive Functioning 22 Chapter Three Methods Participants All students in 3 and 4 grade students (approximately 500) in an upstate New York suburban district elementary school received a letter explaining the study and a parent permission form. Both students and their parents were asked to participate in the study. The school district primarily serves a upper middle class community. The request for participants was done in Spring and Fall 2005. Only those who had not previously participated in this study were eligible in Fall 2005. A total of 110 parental permission forms were returned for both Spring and Fall 2005 assessment sessions. Of that 110, only 82 children (44 third grade, 38 fourth grade) completed the DAP and CAS and 80 parents completed the BRIEF questionnaire. The overall sample of 80 consisted of 42 female and 38 male students and their parent(s).